Caregivers in the Workforce

		Estimated Number of Printed Pages: 20 TOPICS COVERED: A concise analysis of whether corporate America has become more family-friendly, as long promised.

MEMOS ON RELATED INFORMATION: Child Care, Mothers and Daughters, Fathers and Sons, How People Spend their Time

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TREND ANALYSIS: WORK-LIFE BALANCE

THE TREND AS IDENTIFIED IN MASS MEDIA:

It's uneven, but there's a recurrent string of articles about how workplaces are going too become more family-friendly / parent-supportive environments, because they have to, and / or they recognize the talent is worth it.

HOW THEY GET IT WRONG:

Point 1: It just isn't happening.

For decades already, the articles have said that it's coming. There may be some ability to telecommute, change work hours, but, by and large, things don't seem to have changed. The time-bind / work - family tension coverage seems to be continue; women and men still keep dropping out of the work force (if they can), still saying they have to choose a lesser position and less money to be with their kids. And the work week just gets longer. And technology is making the 7-day wk, 24-work day more of a reality – for upperclass / management (less so for blue collar jobs which typically are underemploying workers).

1978
The U.S. passed the Pregnancy Discrimination Act, which outlawed discrimination in hiring, firing, promotions or pay, on the basis of a woman's pregnancy.

1987
The U.S. Supreme Court upheld a California law requiring most employers give pregnant women up to four months of unpaid disability and the right to return to their job at the end of that time.

1993
The year the U.S. federal government enacted the Family and Medical Leave Act, which requires that eligible employees can take up to 12 weeks of unpaid leave for childbearing or care of a family member.

36 percent
During the period of 1981-1985, 36 percent of U.S. women pregnant with their first child quit their jobs while pregnant or soon after giving birth.

26 percent
During the period of 1996-2000, 26 percent of U.S. women pregnant with their first child quit their jobs while pregnant or soon after giving birth.

3.9 percent
of U.S. women who had given birth to their first child during the period of 1961-1965 were working by the time the child was a month old.

13.6 percent
of U.S. women who had given birth to their first child during the period of 1996-1999 were working by the time the child was a month old.

16.8 percent
of U.S. women who had given birth to their first child during the period of 1961-1965 were working by the time the child was a year old.

64.8 percent
of U.S. women who had given birth to their first child during the period of 1996-1999 were working by the time the child was a year old.

33.5 percent
of U.S. women who had given birth to their first child during the period of 1961-1965 were working by the time the child was five years old.

78.6 percent
of U.S. women who had given birth to their first child during the period of 1991-1995 were working by the time the child was five years old.

January 2003

		Date in Egypt, when the first woman judge was appointed by a presidential decree only in January 2003 – an indication of both the growth of Arabic women's education and preeminence in their fields and how far behind they still are compared to women elsewhere around the globe. 34.7 percent –

		of Oman's women were working in the industrial labor force was female by the 1990s. Seven percent –

		of women in the other Gulf nations were working in industry. 45.3 percent –

		of Oman's women in the 1990s were working in the service sector – the lowest rate of the Arab Gulf nations. 98 percent –

		of the women in Kuwait who worked were working within the service sector. 46.4 percent –

		of women age 25 to 44 in Persian Gulf region nations were working in the year 2000. 22.3 percent –

		of women in Argentina were working in 1950. 38.4 percent –

		of women in Argentina were working in the year 2000. 14.5 percent –

		of women in Brazil were working in 1950. 41.0 percent –

		of women in Brazil were working in the year 2000. 17.6 percent –

		of women in Colombia were working in 1950. 37.1 percent –

		of women in Colombia were working in the year 2000.

		In 1950, sociologist Hollingshead wrote: “Lower-class families exhibit the highest prevalence of instability of any class . . . A companionate family is often a complicated one. It may include the natural chil-dren of the couple, plus the woman’s children from a previous legal or com-panionate relationship ; also there may be dependent children of the man living with the woman. Normally, when the lower-class family is broken, as in the higher classes, the mother keeps the children. However, the mother may desert her ’man’ for another man, and leave her children with him, her mother or sister, or social agency. In the Deep South and Elmtown, from 50 to 60 percent of lower-class family groups are broken once, and often more, by desertion, divorce, death, or separation, often due to imprisonment of the man, between marriage, legal or companionate, and its normal dissolution through the marriage of adult children and the death of aged parents. ¶ Economic insecurity is but one of a number of factors that give rise to this amount of instability. lower-class people are employed in the most menial, the poorest paid, . . . seasonal and cyclical, and of short duration. More-over, from one-half to two-third of the wives are gainfully employed outside the family; in may cases they are the sole support of the family. However, the problem of economic insecurity does not account for amoral behavior that ranges from the flagrant violation of conventional sex mores to open rebellion against formal agencies of social control.” 60 percent

		"of Australian couple families with dependent children both parents were employed. . . . Of the 698,800 couple families with dependent children where only one parent was employed, the employed parent was the father in 89 percent of cases." 21 percent –

		during the period of 1890 and 1920 – the increase in single women who were working. 100 percent –

		during the period of 1890 and 1920 – the increase in married women who were working.

		Why mothers in 1920s Philadelphia worked –

		– they were widows (22 percent); – they were on their own financially because their husbands had either deserted them or were not giving them any financial support (24 percent); – they had husbands who were ill (14 percent); – their husbands didn't make enough money (29 percent); and

		– the women preferred to work (11 percent).

		Two out of every three Americans between the ages of 14 and 65

		were expected to be in the armed forces or working (or have substitutes in their places) by 1943. That estimate did not include millions more who were in seasonal agricultural work, or were volunteering for the Red Cross and other wartime relief agencies. 22,000,000 women

		were working in the U.S. in 1961. By 1961,

		Science News Letter estimated that “A young woman in the U.S. today can anticipate spending about 25 years of her married life working outside the home.”

		In Belgium, "New measures tend to take on male-oriented overtones. Currently, the system of parental leave is undergoing reform. In Belgium, parental leave was a special arrangement within a broader context of career interruption. As of 1 January 2002, this system will be discontinued and replaced by a new system involving time credit. This new systems foresees that each employee has the right to take off one year (full-time) (or its equivalent in part-time periods) over the space of the working career."

		In Belgium, "Since 1997, the issue of parental leave has taken on new overtones; and the target population has not been exclusively mothers but also fathers. Special arrangements exclusively for fathers were introduced. One example was when a regional government (Brussels) introduced an additional ten days of fatherhood leave for their staff, effective as of 1 January 2002. Across regions, two general tendencies can be identified. First, the amounts received for parental leave tend to be quite substantial. For example, in the non-profit sector, employees can take three months of fatherhood leave and receive an amount of ¤ 927.12 a month as of January 2001. Second, incentives are built in so that the measures attract men as well as women."

		In Germany, "To make clear that raising children is also work, the term ‘parental leave’ (Erziehungsurlaub)–which tends to connote ‘vacations’ in German–was substituted by ‘parental time’ (Elternzeit)."

		In the Netherlands, "The most prevalent pattern is that of a family where the father is working full-time and the mother is working for an extra income that, in most cases, amounts to a half-time job or less." 44 percent

		of Japanese women were in the paid labor force in 2000. 33 percent

		of Japanese women in the paid labor force in 1950. 27 percent

		of working mothers in Spain say that it is the help of their own mothers which is the main reason they can maintain both a family and a career. That's two percent less than say it's their husband are the reason. 14 percent say that it's proximity between work and home. Another 10 percent credit their other family members. “Low”

		The percentage of married American women graduating from college in 1900-1919 who were working at age 30. 25 percent

		of married American women graduating from college in 1920-1945 who were working at age 30. 25-30 percent

		of married American women graduating from college in 1946-1965 who were working at age 30. 65 percent

		of married American women graduating from college in 1966-1979 who were working at age 30. 80 percent

		of married American women graduating from college in 1980-1990 who were working at age 30. 12.3 percent

		of American women with juris doctorates were no longer attorneys within 10 years of graduation, in comparison to 4.0 percent of men, according to a 1993 survey. 10.7 percent

		of American women with M.D.s who were no longer doctors within 10 years of graduation, in comparison to 3.7 percent of men, according to in a 1993 survey. One-fourth

		of female graduates of various Harvard professional schools are not in the workforce, according to a study. 16 percent more likely –

		For every hour a parent works between six and nine in the evening, the child is 16 percent more likely to score in the bottom fourth in math tests, according to a US study.

		"Thus, the individualist will tend to view the needs of the self and the family as distinct, and will experience conflict when there are demands made by both. In other words, the work and family domains are seen as exerting competing demands where addressing one will likely be at the expense of the other. As a result, when work time demands are high, individualists are bound to experience higher levels of work--family stressors and consequent strain than are collectivists."

		"In collectivist societies, according to Yang et al. (2000), people's focus is on the family's welfare. Work is seen not as a means of enhancing the self, but as a means of supporting the family. For example, Chinese traditionally view work as more important than leisure, and as contributing to family welfare instead of competing with it (Redding, 1993). Bu and McKeen (2000) found that Chinese business students were more committed to work than were Canadians and expected to work more hours. In addition, there may be less tendency for Chinese and other collectivists to consider home and work as independent domains, which may reflect more of a western point of view that is not universally held." 30 percent

		of American married mothers of children younger than six who were in the labor force in 1970. 60.8 percent

		of American married mothers of children younger than six who were in the labor force in 2002. 55.4 percent

		of U.S. mothers are married, live with their husbands, and are in the labor force. 53.3 percent

		of U.S. mothers without present spouses are in the labor force. 30 million

		The increase of the European labor force between 1960 and 1990. 25 million

		of those Europeans entering the labor force between 1960 and 1990, 25 million of them were women. 50 percent

		of women in Spain 25-49 years old are in the work force. That's the lowest percentage of working women in the European Union. 80 percent

		of women in Spain 25-49 years old are in the work force. That's the highest percentage of working women in the European Union. Two-thirds

		of women 25-49 years old in the European Union are working. Eight percent

		of employed women in Greece 25-49 years old are only working part-time. 75 percent

		of employed women in the Netherlands 25-49 years old are only working part-time. 57 percent

		in the U.S. in 1977 who agreed with the statement that a wife should help her husband's career rather than have one of her own. 43 percent disagreed. 19 percent

		in U.S. in 1998 still agreed with the statement that a wife should help her husband's career instead of having one of her own. In 20 years, the number of those who disagreed doubled – to 81 percent. 66 percent

		of those surveyed in the U.S. in 1977 agreed with the statement that "it is much better for everyone involved if the man is the achiever outside the home and the woman takes care of the home and family." (34 percent opposed.) 34 percent

		of those surveyed in the U.S. in 1977 opposed the statement that "it is much better for everyone involved if the man is the achiever outside the home and the woman takes care of the home and family." 34-38 percent

		in the U.S. in 1998 agreed with the statement that "it is much better for everyone involved if the man is the achiever outside the home and the woman takes care of the home and family." 62-66 percent

		in the U.S. in 1998 opposed the statement that "it is much better for everyone involved if the man is the achiever outside the home and the woman takes care of the home and family." 67 percent

		of those surveyed in the U.S. in 1996 thought that both the husband and wife should earn an income. 31.0 percent

		of U.S. mothers with infants were in the workforce in 1976. 54.6 percent

		of U.S. mothers with infants who were in the workforce in 2002. The rate increased to a peak of 58.7 percent in 1998, and then for the first time since 1976, it began to drop or stay unchanged. However, it is unclear if that is because of the economic downturn or a lifestyle movement. 55 percent

		of U.S. mothers with infant children are in the workforce. 10 million

		women in the U.K. were working in 1971. 13.2 million

		women in the U.K. were working in 2001. Over half –

		of British mothers with preschool children were working in 1997. 18 percent of them were working full time. Almost one-fifth

		of British children live in a household without a working parent. One out of every six

		U.S. children lived with a householder who was not in the labor force in 2000. In California, New York, and Mississippi, that figure rose to 21 percent. In Washington DC, it was 32 percent. Seven million

		U.S. married mothers were out of the labor force in 2003. Six million mothers –

		– 88 percent of the mothers who were out of the labor force – said that the primary reason they weren't working was because they were taking care of their homes and families. Of these six million women, five million of them had the fathers of their children in the labor force for the entire year. 160,000

		– 16 percent – U.S. married fathers were out of the labor force in 2003 because they were taking care of their homes and families. For about 100,000 of these families, the mother was in the workforce the entire year. 45 percent

		of those fathers out of the workforce who said that the primary reason they weren't working because they were ill or disabled.

		"The economies in the Anglo countries tend to be stronger than those in China and Latin America, resulting in a higher average household income. Thus, working longer hours in the Anglo world may appear to be less necessary for family survival. It makes sense that where making a living is more difficult, people would be more accepting of working long hours. Similarly, higher unemployment rates than those in Anglo countries may force managers in less developed areas to protect their jobs by working longer hours. Such extended hours would be tolerated by the family as a necessary evil, or even celebrated as a further guarantee of job security in an uncertain job market where having a management job is certainly an unusual privilege. Furthermore, there may be greater extended family support in collectivist countries on matters such as babysitting children, thereby making it easier for families to manage with one or even both parents working long hours." Three in five

		British couples with dependent children are ‘dual-earner’ families – both adults are working. 36 percent

		of the British mothers who have partners, do not work. By contrast, 73 percent of British women with partners but without children are employed. 37 percent

		of the British mothers who have partners, work but just part-time. By contrast, just 22 percent of British women with partners but without children work part-time. 27 percent

		of the British mothers who have partners, work full-time. By contrast, 51 percent of British women with partners but without children are employed full-time.

		In Finland, "Because the benefits do not totally compensate for earnings, it is more profitable for the parent with the lower income to stay at home. Most often, this is the mother." In Finland, "In 1998, every second child had two working parents, though the mothers tended to regulate their working time according to their children's age. When the youngest child was under three, only 45 percent of the mothers worked." 70. Sirpa Taskinen, The Situation of Families in Finland in 2001, European Observatory on Family Matters (2001), p. 1. Archived at: http://europa.eu.int/comm/employment_social/eoss/downloads/gm_01_finland_taskinen_en.pdf

		In Germany, "Besides migration, the discussion [on low fertility and the “extinction of the German population] soon focused on the enormous potential of qualified women. If future offers enable them to better reconcile work and family life, they could close the anticipated gap between the supply of and demand for skilled labour."

		In Ireland, "For many years the underlying assumption of social welfare and taxation in Ireland was that of a breadwinner father with dependent spouse and children in a lifelong marriage. As the Report states “this is, however, no longer necessarily the norm in Irish society.” 23.1 percent

		of women in Portugal worked in 1970. 62.0 percent

		of women in Portugal worked in 1998. 68 percent

		of couples with at least one dependent child in Portugal were dual-earner families. 70 percent

		of women with children in Finland work. 58 percent

		of women without children in Finland work. Every second child –

		in Finland had two working parents in 1998. Although fewer mothers of younger children worked. 40 percent

		of the American labor force works mostly nonstandard hours: they work in the evenings, overnight, on rotating schedules, or on weekends. For one out of five

		employed Americans, they work most of their hours outside the range of 8 a.m. to 4 p.m. or they have a schedule that regularly rotates. In 35 percent

		of American dual-earner couples with a child under five years old, one of the parents had an atypical work schedule. One-third

		of American single mothers work weekends. One-fourth

		of American single mothers work in late evenings or on rotating shifts. More than half

		of all American mothers with children under age five who work late or rotating schedules or weekends rely on two or more caregivers. Just about 35 percent

		of single mothers who work evenings eat with their children at least five days a week. They have 2.7 times the risk of being suspended from school –

		– "they" being children with parents who work nights. Lower cognitive scores –

		In a study, cognitive scores for children with mothers who ever worked nonstandard hours – evenings, nights, or variable schedules – were lower at 15, 24 and 36 months, when compared to the scores of children with mothers who worked standard hours. 60 percent

		of Australian couple families with dependent children both parents are employed. Of the 698,800 couple families with dependent children where only one parent was employed, the employed parent was the father in 89 percent of cases. If it's one parent working, it's Dad

		Of the 698,800 Australian couple families with dependent children where only one parent was employed, the employed parent was the father in 89 percent of cases. Almost 50 percent

		of Irish mothers with partners work. 74 percent

		of new jobs in 1990s Greece were filled by women.

		". . . neither capitalist America nor socialist China had shown real signs of a significant transformation from patriarchal to gender-egalitarian power relationships in the past fifty years. The wife's recent achievement in economic independence via labor force participation does not easily translate into a gender-balanced power structure in the conjugal family. In the case of Detroit, we do not see an expected steady decline in husbands' power since the 1960s' cohorts where women begun to increasingly enter into the labor force. In the case of China, the finding is consistent with previous studies, which revealed that in urban Chinese families husbands tend to dominate the decision-making process." 24 percent

		of all women in Canada were in the labor force in 1951. 60 percent

		of all women in Canada were in the labor force in 1990. 31 percent

		of all British women were in the labor force in 1951. 44 percent

		of all British women were in the labor force in 1993. 17.0 percent

		of women in Latin American were in the labor force in 1950. 27.5 percent

of women in Latin American were estimated to be in the labor force in the year 2000.

48 hours a week –