Europe (Part One)

– A British government report found that when grandparents assume full responsibility for raising a grandchild, it's usually the result of a family crisis. 38.

STEPFAMILIES

Six percent
of all families with dependent children in the U.K. are stepfamilies – most of which include a mother and her biological children, since mothers are usually the custodial parent. 25.

SINGLE PARENT FAMILIES DEMOGRAPHICS

" [S]ociological studies show that, at least in some [Western European] countries . . . single motherhood is only a temporary, transitional stage in the union formation. Many unmarried mothers, in other words, are not necessarily to be considered as lone parents. Single motherhood by choice, more particularly among older, better-educated, working women, also seems to be on the rise . . . , but this phenomenon is not yet well documented. Contrary to all the former categories of one-parent families, widowed lone-parent families are, as a result of decreases in mortality, strongly declining." 1.

"As the divorce rate soared after 1960, three other major trends started to emerge that were part of the 20th century's transformation in pair-bonding in the Western world: the rate of marriage decreased, while the rates of cohabitation without marriage and nonmarital births increased. . . . This nonmarital birthrate increase is particularly impressive because it occurred at the same time that women in the West had more contraceptive choice than ever before in the history of the human species." 2.

In the U.S. and Western Europe, "It is likely that the frequency of one-parent families, at least as a transitional family stage in the life course, will increase or remain high. These families are highly vulnerable, since most are headed by women, whose social position is still relatively weaker than that of men. These women have to cope with the existing incompatibilities between gainful employment and family life, especially child care." 4.

13 percent
of all British families that were lone-parent families, compared to British-Caribbean households of which were 42 percent were lone-parent, British Indians’s 9 percent , British Pakistanis’ 12 percent , and British Bangladeshis’ 13 percent. 13.

In the U.K., in 2001, "Clause 108 of the Bill has also changed the law in relation to the rights of unmarried fathers. Registration as the father of a child will now grant full parental responsibility, with associated rights to be involved in decisions about the child’s education, health or even living arrangements." 14.

Nine percent
of all lone mothers in Britain between 1991-1993 who continued to live with their parents. 16 percent of never-married mothers continued to live with their parents. 15.

30 percent
of all Spanish lone mothers, in 1991, (independent of their marital status) with children under age 18 coresided with their own mothers, as did slightly less than half of all mothers with children under six. 16.

10 percent
of households in the U.K. were single-parent families in 1998. 31.

11 percent
of households in Ireland contain single parents with children. 33.

"In 1990/91 lone-parent families represented 8.6 percent of all families with children under 18 years of age in Spain, in contrast to 11.9 percent in France, 15.7 percent in Germany, 16.8 percent in Canada, 18.1 percent in the Netherlands, 22.0 percent in Denmark, 22.3 percent in Sweden, and 23.5 percent in the United States." 38.

SINGLE PARENT FAMILY EFFECTS AND ECONOMICS

" . . . over half (63 percent) of all [U.K.] lone parents live in poverty. In fact, the government presents the increase in the number of these families, which has taken place over the past 20 years, as one of the major reasons for the growth in child poverty." 52.

63 percent
of U.K. lone parents live in poverty. The British government believes that the increase in single parent households over the past 20 years has been one of the major reasons for the growth in child poverty. 53.

45 percent
of poor children in the U.K. live in a one parent family. 54.

40.3 percent
of British children living with a single mother lived in poverty in 1995, compared to 17.5 percent of those living in a two-parent family. 55.

In the U.K., "data concerning household expenditure shows that the average weekly spending by lone parent families is less than half of the amount spent by two-parent households, and even lower than some pensioner couples. And, it seems that although they are more likely to spend a greater proportion of their income on food than higher income families, the actual amount is far less in real terms." 56.

In the U.K., "Lone parents are the family type at greatest risk of poverty, and figures for 1997/98 show that while only 8 percent of the total population were members of this type of family, they made up 14 percent of households with below half-average income. More recent statistics suggest that the relationship between poverty and lone parenthood remains strong, because nearly half (45 percent ) of poor children live in a one parent family, and over half (63 percent ) of all lone parents live in poverty. In fact, the government presents the increase in the number of these families, which has taken place over the past 20 years, as one of the major reasons for the growth in child poverty." 57.

Less than half
in the U.K., "the average weekly spending by lone parent families is less than half of the amount spent by two-parent households, and even lower than some pensioner couples. And, it seems that although they are more likely to spend a greater proportion of their income on food than higher income families, the actual amount is far less in real terms." 58.

14 percent
British households of single parent families had incomes that were below half-the average income. That is almost twice the rate of the total population (eight percent). 59.

47 percent
of British single mothers were employed in the mid 1990s. 60.

42 percent
of British single mothers were employed in the end of the 1970s. 61.

In the U.K., "the proportion of employed lone mothers actually fell between the end of the 1970s and the mid 1990s (from 47 percent to 42 percent ), and although there has been some increase more recently, the majority of these women still do not work outside the home." 62.

In the U.K., "These researchers argued that the main ‘barrier’ to employment for mothers continues to be the lack of affordable, good quality childcare in the UK, and that this had a significant impact on their choices. Furthermore, a report from the Daycare Trust also highlighted how the cost and shortage of childcare restricts employment options for many women, and especially those from minority ethnic backgrounds, lone mothers, the less well qualified and mothers of disabled children." 63.

"In the ECHP [European Community Household Panel], the poverty line is considered to be 60 percent of the METI [household total mean income]. In Spain, 19 percent of all persons are below this line. However, the proportion is 33 percent among those living in a household formed by a single parent with dependent children, and 28 percent in those with two adults and three or more dependent children. If the incidence of poverty is close to average, the financial situation of Spanish households is well below the average for the countries studied in the ECHP, with 67 percent living in households with difficulties making ends meet – a proportion clearly higher than the average (49 percent ). Another 65 percent live in households unable to save regularly, also above average (59 percent ); and 38 percent live in households that cannot afford three or more basic necessities (average 21 percent )." 64.

In Greece, "single-parent families carry a greater burden in terms of income but not in terms of consumption, probably because of informal support networks." 65.

In Ireland, in 1996. "11 percent of all households consisted of lone parents with children." 66.

47 percent
of single Irish parents of children under five years old were employed in 2001. 67.

Almost 50 percent
of single parents in Finland work. 69.

In Finland, "In 1998, every second child had two working parents, though the mothers tended to regulate their working time according to their children's age. When the youngest child was under three, only 45 percent of the mothers worked." 70.

31.0 percent
of Russian children living with a single mother lived in poverty in 1995, compared to 26.0 percent of those living in a two-parent family. 71.

25.4 percent
of French children living with a single mother lived in poverty in 1989, compared to 7.7 percent of those living in a two-parent family. 73.

In Greece, in 1998, "single-parent families carry a greater burden in terms of income but not in terms of consumption, probably because of informal support networks." 74.

SAME SEX COUPLES – INTERNATIONALLY

1989
The year Denmark established the world's first laws recognizing same-sex unions. Under these laws, which were later adopted in Norway (in 1993) and Sweden (in 1994) gays were entitled to the same legal protections as married couples with three exceptions:
1. There would be no official marriage of the couple.
2. The couple could not be the parents of the same child.
3. The couple could not adopt. (Recently, however, the law has been changed to allow same-sex couples to adopt.). 48.

2001
The year the U.K. Parliament granted a cross-party amendment agreed to grant gay partners the right to make a joint adoption application. 49.

2001
The year in Portugal that granted some rights to same-sex unions, but excludes in those new rights the right to adoption. 50.

2000
The year Belgium began to have legalized partnerships for gays. 51

June 1, 2003

		The date Belgian law legalizing same-sex marriages became effective. The law allows Belgian gay couples to enter into the existing legal form of marriage with two notable exceptions:

		1) in the event of a same-sex spouses, the surviving spouse does not automatically get custody of the decendent spouse's children and 2) they are not allowed to adopt. 52.

June 6, 2003
The date that the first same-sex couple married in Antwerp, Belgium. 53.

IS FAMILY IMPORTANT?

"As a rule, in Italy the family is firmly at centre stage. The use of private services to assist with housework and care does not show any particular signs of change as compared to the past. Care of the house, children and elderly continue to be almost exclusively women’s responsibility. The differences with respect to the other European countries emerge clearly from a recent Eurobarometer survey." 5.

"The importance of the family has never been questioned in Germany. However, the appreciation of the work involved in raising a family and the importance of families as an investment into the future only became focal issues in the course of the discussion on the potential labour shortage. Family associations and those representing families feel some uneasiness over the fact that the family only received the recognition it deserves by virtue of its role in the production process–thus a back-door entry at best, without any recognition in its own right. However, the current acknowledgement of the family’s importance is indeed noteworthy. It constitutes a favourable prerequisite for creating a good and lasting basis for children, women and families–and for not blocking the way into a future that must offer children and adolescents stable conditions for growing up." 6.

"The geography of families in the central and northern parts of Europe and the communities in North America are characterized by relatively weak family ties. In contrast, families from the Mediterranean region possess stronger family bonds, as evidenced by the care they render to aged or weak members of society. There are strong evidences which indicate that these differences have extensive historical causes, which may likely have characterized European families for several centuries." 7.

"In weak-family areas, the value attributed to the individual and to individualism tends to predominate. Young adults leave home, encouraged by their parents, so as to acquire the experiences they need to handle life as autonomous individuals. Leaving home at an early age is considered an important part of their education. Where the strong family flourishes, the familial group more than the individual tends to predominate in the socialization of the young. In these contexts, the family is seen as defending its members against the difficulties imposed by social and economic realities. A child receives support and protection until he or she leaves home for good, normally for marriage, and even later." 8.

"Loneliness is one of the most important social problems in weak-family societies. I refer to the loneliness of the individual who must confront the world and his own life without the safety net of familial support so characteristic of strong-family regions. Suicide, often an indirect consequence of loneliness, tends to be far higher in northern Europe and the United States than it is in southern Europe. The effects of loneliness are compensated in weak-family societies by a strong tradition of civic association, where people form groups, clubs, and societies for the most varied purposes. The number and variety of these associations in England or the [U]nited States would be unimaginable for a citizen of southern Europe." 9.

DOES LIVING NEAR BY MEAN YOU'RE CLOSE?: FAMILY PROXIMITY AND CONTACTS

58 percent
of Italian men call their mother every day. 22.

65 percent
of Italian women call their mother every day. 23.

43 percent
of all Italian married couples under 65 years old live within one kilometer of either the husband's or wife's parents. 24.

One-half
of Czech newlywed couples live within the same city or town as their parents – an average distance being about 30 minutes apart. 25.

87 percent
Austrian grandparents describe their relationship with their grandchildren as either "very close" or "quite close." 31.

Mostly good to very good
How both Austrian children and their parents rate their parent-child relationship. But the parents seem to rate that relationship more favorable than their kids do. 32.

It's not a sense of obligation, exactly, it seems to be more paying the Piper, but in a good way . . . sorta . . . .
In Austria, parents who spent a lot of time with their children when they were young, are much more likely to have those now adult children spend a lot of time with them when they are infirmed – compared those parents who spent less time raising their children. And for parents who didn't spend that much time with their children when they were young – well, only 27 percent of them can expect anything more than just a little help from their children now. At least 54 percent of the parents closer to their kids can expect more than that. 33.

64 percent
of elderly in Austria live with or near by their children. 34.

Nearly 90 percent
of Germans aged 18–55 who live within less than one hour’s travel time from two, three- or four-generations of their family. 35.

30 percent
of Germans who live less than 15 minutes distance between three-generations. 36.

Just one percent
of U.K. households are three-generation households in the UK. As of 2001 – an estimated 1 percent of all households in spring 2001. However, research shows that links between the generations remain important, even when families do not actually share the same home. For example, a study which compared data from the International Social Survey Programme in 1986, 1995 and 2001, found that although individuals now have most regular contact with their immediate family, they still keep in regular touch with wider family members. 37.

WORK-LIFE BALANCE

In Belgium, "New measures tend to take on male-oriented overtones. Currently, the system of parental leave is undergoing reform. In Belgium, parental leave was a special arrangement within a broader context of career interruption. As of 1 January 2002, this system will be discontinued and replaced by a new system involving time credit. This new systems foresees that each employee has the right to take off one year (full-time) (or its equivalent in part-time periods) over the space of the working career."

In Belgium, "Since 1997, the issue of parental leave has taken on new overtones; and the target population has not been exclusively mothers but also fathers. Special arrangements exclusively for fathers were introduced. One example was when a regional government (Brussels) introduced an additional ten days of fatherhood leave for their staff, effective as of 1 January 2002. Across regions, two general tendencies can be identified. First, the amounts received for parental leave tend to be quite substantial. For example, in the non-profit sector, employees can take three months of fatherhood leave and receive an amount of ¤ 927.12 a month as of January 2001. Second, incentives are built in so that the measures attract men as well as women."

In Germany, "To make clear that raising children is also work, the term ‘parental leave’ (Erziehungsurlaub)–which tends to connote ‘vacations’ in German–was substituted by ‘parental time’ (Elternzeit)."

In the Netherlands, "The most prevalent pattern is that of a family where the father is working full-time and the mother is working for an extra income that, in most cases, amounts to a half-time job or less."

27 percent
of working mothers in Spain say that it is the help of their own mothers which is the main reason they can maintain both a family and a career. That's two percent less than say it's their husband are the reason. 14 percent say that it's proximity between work and home. Another 10 percent credit their other family members.

30 million
The increase of the European labor force between 1960 and 1990.

25 million
of those Europeans entering the labor force between 1960 and 1990, 25 million of them were women.

50 percent
of women in Spain 25-49 years old are in the work force. That's the lowest percentage of working women in the European Union.

80 percent
of women in Spain 25-49 years old are in the work force. That's the highest percentage of working women in the European Union.

Two-thirds
of women 25-49 years old in the European Union are working.

Eight percent
of employed women in Greece 25-49 years old are only working part-time.

75 percent
of employed women in the Netherlands 25-49 years old are only working part-time.

10 million
women in the U.K. were working in 1971.

13.2 million
women in the U.K. were working in 2001.

Over half –
of British mothers with preschool children were working in 1997. 18 percent of them were working full time.

Almost one-fifth
of British children live in a household without a working parent.

Three in five
British couples with dependent children are ‘dual-earner’ families – both adults are working.

36 percent
of the British mothers who have partners, do not work. By contrast, 73 percent of British women with partners but without children are employed.

37 percent
of the British mothers who have partners, work but just part-time. By contrast, just 22 percent of British women with partners but without children work part-time.

27 percent
of the British mothers who have partners, work full-time. By contrast, 51 percent of British women with partners but without children are employed full-time.

In Finland, "Because the benefits do not totally compensate for earnings, it is more profitable for the parent with the lower income to stay at home. Most often, this is the mother."

In Germany, "Besides migration, the discussion [on low fertility and the “extinction of the German population] soon focused on the enormous potential of qualified women. If future offers enable them to better reconcile work and family life, they could close the anticipated gap between the supply of and demand for skilled labour."

In Ireland, "For many years the underlying assumption of social welfare and taxation in Ireland was that of a breadwinner father with dependent spouse and children in a lifelong marriage. As the Report states “this is, however, no longer necessarily the norm in Irish society.”

23.1 percent
of women in Portugal worked in 1970.

62.0 percent
of women in Portugal worked in 1998.

68 percent
of couples with at least one dependent child in Portugal were dual-earner families.

70 percent
of women with children in Finland work.

58 percent
of women without children in Finland work.

Every second child –
in Finland had two working parents in 1998. Although fewer mothers of younger children worked.

Almost 50 percent
of Irish mothers with partners work.

74 percent
of new jobs in 1990s Greece were filled by women.

31 percent
of all British women were in the labor force in 1951.

44 percent
of all British women were in the labor force in 1993.

48 hours a week –
the most hours an employer can require an employee to work in the U.K., following a 1998 law meant to acknowledge the need to balance work and family life.

In the U.K., it's the grown-ups who need a note to go leave early –
Beginning in 2003, British parents can make a written request for flexible work scheduling – and their bosses have to explain why such a request isn't granted. And the employee has the right to appeal the decision, even in a tribunal, if necessary.

Over 80 percent
of unmarried women in Spain, aged 25 to 49, are working.

57 percent
of married women in Spain, aged 25 to 49, are working. That is an increase from 42 percent in 1991.

In Spain, "Cultural gender differentiations are gradually vanishing. A clear change in the opinions and attitudes about sharing household tasks has occurred since 1975, when household maintenance was considered to be women’s work. In a recent survey, young people saw sharing domestic tasks as one of the key conditions for a successful partnership. Notwithstanding this tendency, families – especially those with children – tend to reproduce traditional roles, either by preventing married women from working when care obligations are impossible to fulfill with both parents working full-time, or by forcing working mothers to accept strategies involving informal and formal care and lengthy working days without any noticeable support from their husband, except in terms of direct child care. Staying at home is more often the case among women with less education, who at the same time feel less attraction for their job and are less able to afford external help given their small salary. Traditional roles have not changed in the workplace, which is still dominated by the male-breadwinner model; and these roles have not changed much in the family either, the two areas being too closely related."

35-hours –
the number of hours in a French work week since its institution in the year 2000.

57 percent
of French parents with children under the age of six – and one-third of all French parents – think the reduced work week was helping them balance work and family responsibilities, especially child care. But it wasn't just the change in the hours. Analysts think that – without supportive employers and other French benefits (such as parental leave and child care) – the change in hours alone would probably not have had as significant an impact.

Almost half
of French parents with children under 12 years old surveyed responded that they spend more time with their children since the reduction of work hours.